.The Proto-Indo-Europeans were a hypothetical people of who spoke (PIE), the ancestor of the according to.Knowledge of them comes chiefly from that linguistic reconstruction, along with material evidence from. The Proto-Indo-Europeans likely lived during the late, or roughly the 4th millennium BC. Mainstream scholarship places them in the zone in (present day and ). Some archaeologists would extend the time depth of PIE to the middle Neolithic (5500 to 4500 BC) or even the early Neolithic (7500 to 5500 BC), and suggest.By the early second millennium BC, offshoots of the Proto-Indo-Europeans had reached far and wide across Eurasia, including , the (the ancestors of ), the north of , the edges of , and southern. Main articles: andUsing, hypothetical features of the Proto-Indo-European language are deduced. Assuming that these linguistic features reflect culture and environment of the Proto-Indo-Europeans, the following cultural and environmental traits are widely proposed:., including domesticated cattle, horses, and dogs.
agriculture and cereal cultivation, including technology commonly ascribed to late-Neolithic farming communities, e.g., the. a climate with winter snow.
transportation by or across water. the solid, used for, but not yet with wheels.
Indo-European languages: Indo-European languages, family of languages spoken in most of Europe and areas of European settlement and in much of Southwest and South Asia. The 10 main branches of the family are Anatolian, Indo-Iranian, Greek, Italic, Germanic, Armenian, Tocharian, Celtic, Balto-Slavic, and Albanian. Nonton Film Bioskop Online Terbaru Gratis Dengan Subtitle Indonesia Full Movie, Movie Streaming, Cinema 21, Box Office, Drama Korea Hanya di Bioskop45.cc.
worship of a, (lit. 'sky father'; , Ζεύς (πατήρ) / (patēr)), vocative.dyeu ph 2ter (, Deipaturos). oral or song lyrics that used stock phrases such as imperishable fame and wine-dark sea.
a kinship-system based on relationships between menHistory of research Researchers have made many attempts to identify particular prehistoric cultures with the Proto-Indo-European-speaking peoples, but all such theories remain speculative. Any attempt to identify an actual people with an unattested language depends on a sound reconstruction of that language that allows identification of cultural concepts and environmental factors associated with particular cultures (such as the use of metals, agriculture vs. Pastoralism, geographically distinctive plants and animals, etc.). The scholars of the 19th century who first tackled the question of the Indo-Europeans' original homeland (also called, from ), had essentially only linguistic evidence. They attempted a rough localization by reconstructing the names of plants and animals (importantly the and the ) as well as the culture and technology (a Bronze Age culture centered on animal husbandry and having ). The scholarly opinions became basically divided between a European hypothesis, positing migration from Europe to Asia, and an Asian hypothesis, holding that the migration took place in the opposite direction.In the early 20th century, the question became associated with the expansion of a supposed ', a fallacy promoted during the expansion of European empires and the rise of '. The question remains contentious within some flavours of (see also ).A series of major advances occurred in the 1970s due to the convergence of several factors.
First, the method (invented in 1949) had become sufficiently inexpensive to be applied on a mass scale. Through (tree-ring dating), pre-historians could calibrate radiocarbon dates to a much higher degree of accuracy. And finally, before the 1970s, parts of Eastern Europe and Central Asia had been off limits to Western scholars, while non-Western archaeologists did not have access to publication in Western peer-reviewed journals. The pioneering work of, assisted by, at least partly addressed this problem by organizing expeditions and arranging for more academic collaboration between Western and non-Western scholars.The, as of 2017 the most widely held theory, depends on linguistic and archaeological evidence, but is not universally accepted. It suggests PIE origin in the during the. A minority of scholars prefer the, suggesting an origin in during the Neolithic.
Other theories (, ) have only marginal scholarly support.In regard to terminology, in the 19th and early 20th centuries, the term Aryan was used to refer to the Proto-Indo-Europeans and their descendants. However, Aryan more properly applies to the, the Indo-European branch that settled parts of the Middle East and South Asia, as only Indic and Iranian languages explicitly affirm the term as a self-designation referring to the entirety of their people, whereas the same Proto-Indo-European root (.aryo-) is the basis for Greek and Germanic word forms which seem only to denote the ruling elite of Proto-Indo-European (PIE) society. In fact, the most accessible evidence available confirms only the existence of a common, but vague, socio-cultural designation of 'nobility' associated with PIE society, such that Greek socio-cultural lexicon and Germanic proper names derived from this root remain insufficient to determine whether the concept was limited to the designation of an exclusive, socio-political elite, or whether it could possibly have been applied in the most inclusive sense to an inherent and ancestral 'noble' quality which allegedly characterized all ethnic members of PIE society. Only the latter could have served as a true and universal self-designation for the Proto-Indo-European people.By the early twentieth century this term had come to be widely used in a racist context referring to a hypothesized white, blonde and blue eyed master race, culminating with the pogroms of the in Europe. Subsequently, the term Aryan as a general term for Indo-Europeans has been largely abandoned by scholars (though the term is still used to refer to the branch that settled in Southern Asia). Urheimat hypotheses. ^Further reading.
Anthony, David W. Princeton University Press. Atkinson, Q. D.; Nicholls, G.; Welch, D.; Gray, R. 'From Words to Dates: Water into wine, mathemagic or phylogenetic inference?'
Transactions of the Philological Society. 103 (2): 193–219.; Seielstad, Mark (2000). Genes, Peoples, and Languages. Harmondsworth: Penguin Books. Gray, Russell D.; Atkinson, Quentin D. 426 (6965): 435–439.
Holm, Hans J. 'The new Arboretum of Indo-European 'Trees'.
Can new Algorithms Reveal the Phylogeny and even Prehistory of IE?' Journal of Quantitative Linguistics 14–2:167–214.
(1989). In Search of the Indo-Europeans: Language, Archaeology, and Myth. London: Thames & Hudson. Piazza, Alberto; (15 April 2006). In Cangelosi, Angelo; Smith, Andrew D M; Smith, Kenny (eds.).
Rome: World Scientific. Archived from on 10 September 2007.
Retrieved 8 August 2007. (1987). Archaeology & Language.
The Puzzle of the Indo-European Origins. London: Jonathan Cape. Sykes, Brian.
(2001) The Seven Daughters of Eve. London: Corgi Books. Watkins, Calvert.
New York: Oxford University Press. (2002). The Journey of Man: A Genetic Odyssey.
Princeton University Press.External links Look up in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.Look up in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. at the (archived 22 January 2009) from The American Heritage Dictionary. Beckwith, Christopher I. University of California.Genetics.
.The Indo-Aryan or Indic languages, are a major language family of (or the ). They constitute a branch of the, itself a branch of the family. In the early 21st century, Indo-Aryan languages were spoken by more than 800 million people, primarily in India, Bangladesh, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka. Moreover, there are large and Indo-Aryan speaking communities in Northwestern Europe, Western Asia, North America and Australia. There are about 219 known Indo-Aryan languages.Modern Indo-Aryan languages are descended from through.
The largest in terms of speakers are (Hindi-Urdu, about 329 million), (242 million), (about 100 million) and other languages, with a 2005 estimate placing the total number of native speakers at nearly 900 million. Main articles: andIn the -speaking areas, for a long time the was, but this was replaced in the 19th century by the -based. Hindustani was strongly influenced by and, with these influences leading to the emergence of Modern Standard Hindi and Modern Standard as of the Hindustani language. This state of affairs continued until the division of the British Indian Empire in 1947, when Hindi became the official language in India and became official in Pakistan. Despite the different script the fundamental grammar remains identical, the difference is more than purely linguistic. Today it is widely understood/spoken as a second or third language throughout South Asia and one of the most widely known languages in the world in terms of number of speakers.Mitanni-Aryan.
Main article:The Romani language is usually included in the Western Indo-Aryan languages. Romani—spoken mainly in various parts of Europe—is conservative in maintaining almost intact the Middle Indo-Aryan present-tense person concord markers, and in maintaining consonantal endings for nominal case—both features that have been eroded in most other modern languages of Central India. It shares an innovative pattern of past-tense person concord with the languages of the Northwest, such as Kashmiri and Shina. Main article: - 5.6 million speakers Shina.
500,000 speakers. 10,000 speakers. 340 speakers.
700 speakers. 6,000 speakers. 2,000 speakers. 10,000 speakers. 3,000 speakers- 400,000 speakers Kunar. 5,000 speakers. 9,500 speakers.
5,000 speakers. 1,000 speakersChitral. 5,000 speakers. 290,000 speakersKohistani. 200,000 speakers. 29,000. 1,000 speakers.
200 speakers. 100,000 speakers. 100 speakers. 80,000 speakers. †Northern Zone. The Indo-Aryan numerals are found in the treatise on horse training composed by Kikkulis of Mitanni (Section 6.9). They are aikawartanna ( Skt ekavartana) 'one turn of the course', terawartanna ( Skt tre-vartana) 'three turns of the course', sattawartanna ( Skt sapta-vartana) 'seven turns of the course', nawartana with haplology for nawawartana ( Skt nava-vartana) 'nine turns of the course'.
The forms of numerals in these words are clearly Indo-Aryan. The form aika- is especially confirmatory. The form satta for Skt sapta- is a clearly Middle Indo-Aryan form. The following linguistic features reveal that the language belongs to an early Middle Indo-Aryan stage or to a transitional stage between Old Indo-Aryan and Middle Indo-Aryan. (i) Dissimilar plosives have been assimilated, for example, sapta satta.
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Gray quotes the MIA form for comparison, but he is silent about the fact that the borrowing in Anatolian is from MIA (1950: 309). (ii) Semi-vowels and liquids were not assimilated in conjuncts with plosives, semi-vowels or liquids as in 1st MIA, for example, vartana wartana, rathya aratiya-, virya Birya-, Vrdhamva Bardamva. (iii) Nasals were also not assimilated to plosives/nasals, unlike in 1st MIA and like in OIA. This characteristic places the language of these documents earlier than 1st MIA, for example, rukma urukmannu, rtanma artamna. (iv) Anaptyxis was quite frequent, for example, Indra Indara smara mumara.
(v) v b initially, for example, virya birya, vrdhasva bardamva. (vi) r ar, for example, rta arta, vrdh bard. Thus, a linguistic study of the borrowed Indo-Aryan forms in the Anatolian records shows that they are definitely Indo-Aryan and not Iranian nor Indo- Iranian. This also shows that this language belongs to a transitional stage between OIA and MIA. Further, this language is comparable to the language of the Indus seals as deciphered by S.
This language is the base for Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit, which was wrongly named Hybrid because of a misconception that it was a mixed language. Thus, the language of Middle Indo-Aryan is much before the Afokan Prakrit. On the basis of the borrowed words in Anatolian records and the language of the Indus seals as deciphered by S. Rao the date of MIA may go beyond 2000 BC. The transitional stage between OIA and MIA might have started in 2500 BC. Bryant, Edwin (2001). THE INDO-ARYAN CONTROVERSY Evidence and inference in Indian history.
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon: Routledge. Pp. 181–234. There is good evidence that in the Old Indic or Indo-Aryan dialect to which the names belong, at the time of the documents, initial v, represented by b, was pronounced like v, while medial v kept its value of semivowel and was pronounced like w. For instance, Birasena(-Virasena), Birya (=Virya). Biryasura (=Viryasura).
'It seems that in the language to which the names belong, just as in Middle Indic, the group pt had become tt, as in, for instance, Wasasatta(=Vasasapta), Sattawadza(=Saptavaja) and sausatti (=sausapti 'the son of susapti') Dumont, P.E. (October 1947). 'Indo-Aryan Names from Mitanni, Nuzi, and Syrian Documents'. Journal of the American Oriental Society. 67 (4): 251–253.References.